Category: South Asia

The Indian Rebellion of 1857

Published May 17, 2022 by Neil Bhatia

The Indian Rebellion of 1857 resulted from increasing Indian concern with Lord Dalhousie, a Governor General who expanded British authority throughout India. He established railways, the telegraph system, and postal operations, and his “Doctrine of Lapse” allowed the East India Company to seize the revenue of various deceased princes’ estates between 1848 and 1856, fanning the flames of rebellion.

Increasing missionary activity, frustrations over the Persian language being replaced with English, as well as a strained economy, climaxed with sepoys (Indian soldiers in the British army) choosing to mutiny against British authority. This uprising across northern and central India led to a force of 60,000 marching to Delhi and rallying behind Emperor Bahadur Shah of the Mughal Empire. In September 1857 the British recaptured Delhi, murdered civilians and exiled the Emperor to Burma. The rebellion, considered India’s first war in the Indian Independence Movement, had failed, and in 1858 Queen Victoria audaciously proclaimed herself as the “Empress of India” to assume the direct government of India.

FURTHER READING

Bilwakesh, Nikhil. “‘Their Faces Were like so Many of the Same Sort at Home’: American Responses to the Indian Rebellion of 1857.” American Periodicals 21, no. 1 (2011): 1–23. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23025203.

McDermott, Rachel Fell, Leonard A. Gordon, Ainslie T. Embree, Frances W. Pritchett, and Dennis Dalton, eds. “THE EARLY TO MID NINETEENTH CENTURY: Debates Over Reform and Challenge to Empire.” In Sources of Indian Traditions: Modern India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, 3rd ed., 57–119. Columbia University Press, 2014. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7312/mcde13830.10.

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Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

Published May 17, 2022 by Rush Lee

SHEIKH Mujibur Rahman (1920-1975), also known as Mujib, is considered to be the Father of Bangladesh. He founded the Awami League, a Pakistani political party advocating for democracy and socialism that stood in opposition to the dominant Muslim League. He worked to end discrimination of Bengalis in Pakistan, creating his Six-Point Plan detailing political autonomy for East Pakistan.

In 1970, the Awami League won the first democratic election in Pakistan. After an inability to form government and failed negotiations, the Pakistani army arrested Mujib and engaged in a genocide against the Bengali people in East Pakistan, beginning the Bangladesh Liberation War. After Bangladesh’s independence, Mujib was released and became Prime Minister. He indicated that the new constitution be grounded in nationalism, democracy, secularism, and socialism. He was assassinated by a coup in 1975 due to his declaration of a one party socialist state and discontent due to Bangladesh suffering from poverty and corruption.

FURTHER READING

McDermott, Rachel Fell, Leonard A. Gordon, Ainslie T. Embree, Frances W. Pritchett, and Dennis Dalton, eds. “BANGLADESH: Independence and Controversies Over the Fruits of Freedom.” In Sources of Indian Traditions: Modern India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, 3rd ed., 839–841. Columbia University Press, 2014.

Dowlah, Caf. The Bangladesh Liberation War, the Sheikh Mujib Regime, and Contemporary Controversies, Lexington Books, 2016.

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Indian Independence Movement

Published May 17, 2022 by Neil Bhatia

India’s Independence Movement (1857-1947) spanned nearly a century in length, beginning with the Rebellion of 1857, continuing with the rise of Indian nationalism and further resistance, and ending with the partition of India as well as its declared swaraj (independence) in 1947.

The “first war of independence” began in 1857, as Indians feared for their eroding traditions at the expense of British modernization and expansionist ambitions. The sepoys (Indian soldiers in the British army) fought back as economic due to British , igniting other mutinies and rebellions in India. While this rebellion was contained within a year, Indian nationalism continued to grow over the ensuing decades and finally gained tangible traction with the efforts of Mahatma Gandhi and Sarojini Naidu. In the face of oppression they used ideas of Satyagraha and Ahimsa to encourage boycotts and strikes to further pressure British authority. These non-violent protests made things more difficult for the British, who were becoming increasingly preoccupied with World War Two. After the British, against the wishes of Gandhi, negotiated for the Partition of India with Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the Muslim League, they eventually granted independence to India in 1947.

FURTHER READING

Gandhi, and Dennis Dalton. 1996. Mahatma Gandhi : Selected Political Writings. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub.

Jahanbegloo, Ramin. “Gandhi and the Global Satyagraha.” Social Change (New Delhi) 51, no. 1 (2021): 38–50.

Singh, Frances B. “A Passage to India, the National Movement, and Independence.” Twentieth century literature 31, no. 2/3 (1985): 265–278.

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Muhammad Ali Jinnah

Muhammad Ali Jinnah

Published May 17, 2022 by Rush Lee

Muhammad Ali JINNAH (1876-1948) is the founder of Pakistan. Jinnah joined the Indian National Congress in an effort to seek independence from British colonial rule. He originally believed in Hindu-Muslim unity while still advocating for political rights for Muslims. He left the Congress after the introduction of Satyagraha, which he vehemently opposed as he preferred a constitutional approach.

As he experienced a resurgence of his Muslim identity, he worked to establish a sovereign state for Indian Muslims who were worried about being in a minority in Hindu-dominant India. Jinnah helped the All-India Muslim League to declare the independent states of Pakistan, West and East Pakistan, by passing the Lahore Resolution. The Two Nation Theory appeared to be a solution as Jinnah believed that the religious differences between Muslims and Hindus were too great to uphold a secular state. Instead of ethnicity, Pakistan’s foundation for state-building and nationalism became Islam.

FURTHER READING

Brass, Paul R. Routledge Handbook of South Asian Politics India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Nepal. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, 2009, 27-40.

Jinnah, Mahomed Ali. Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah: Speeches, Statements, Writings, Letters, Etc. 1st ed. Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications, 1976.

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Ahimsa

Published May 17, 2022 by Neil Bhatia

Ahimsa, meaning “nonviolence”, was used in conjunction with Satyagraha by Mahatma Gandhi to form the basis for his resistance to colonial powers during the Indian Independence Movement. This concept comes from various religions, as Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism all incorporate ahimsa to varying degrees. In Jainism, Ahimsa is one of its three main pillars as a fundamental tenet of harmlessness towards all life. Within Buddhism, ahimsa is tied to a principle of non-harming.

For Hinduism, ahimsa functions as one of its primary values with a respect for all life. Gandhi was exposed to ahimsa from an early age, as he was raised in Gujarat where Jainism ran strong. He ultimately interpreted it in a secular manner of non-killing, eschewing specific religious interpretations in favor of a more general meaning and practical use with regards to civic protest. Gandhi did acknowledge ahimsa’s application across various religions on higher levels or realms, but he chose to unify the idea between the faiths as he practiced it alongside Satyagraha.

FURTHER READING

Gandhi, and Dennis Dalton. 1996. Mahatma Gandhi : Selected Political Writings. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub.

Jahanbegloo, Ramin. “Gandhi and the Global Satyagraha.” Social Change (New Delhi) 51, no. 1 (2021): 38–50.

Tähtinen Unto. 1964. Non-Violence As an Ethical Principle : With Special Reference to the Views of Mahatma Gandhi. Turun Yliopiston Julkaisuja : Sarja B, Humaniora, Osa 92. Turku: Turun Yliopisto.

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The Language Movement of Bangladesh

The Language Movement of Bangladesh

Published May 16, 2022 by Rush Lee

The Language Movement of Bangladesh (1948-1971) encapsulated the essence of conflict between West and East Pakistan. Urdu is the state language of Pakistan, though many cannot speak or read it, especially in East Pakistan. Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the Governor-General of Pakistan, refused to acknowledge requests to allow Bengali to become a state recognized language. He believed that one language was key to a strong sense of nationalism and a strong state. Urdu represented a strong Muslim state.

Students from the University of Dhaka began protesting on February 21, 1952 after further government refusal of incorporating the Bengali language. While attempting to arrest students, police shot and killed several students at the protest, causing widespread civil unrest. Later a monument was built near the university to commemorate the martyrs of the Language Movement. The movement served as a catalyst for the development and protection of Bengali language and culture, which soon developed into a strong Bengali nationalist movement.

FURTHER READING

Brass, Paul R. Routledge Handbook of South Asian Politics India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Nepal. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, 2009, 233-243.

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Satyagraha

Published May 16, 2022 by Neil Bhatia

Satyagraha, meaning “asserting for truth” or “holding onto truth”, is what Mahatma Gandhi used in conjunction with ahimsa as tools to engage in non-violent dissent. Gandhi coined this term from the roots of the words “Sat”, meaning truth, and “Agraha”, meaning firmness, and he used Satyagraha to organize political action in the face of untruth and injustice.

This concept’s reach extended beyond Gandhi’s work during the Indian Independence Movement due to its essence of non-violence being seen as morally acceptable action. Movements of other activists such as Martin Luther King Jr, Ghaffar Khan, and Nelson Mandela that incorporated Satyagraha show its potential to produce conflict resolution and civic protest as a contrasting force to the violent forces of tyranny across the world. Beyond political action, Satyagraha also cultivates a way of life rooted in the spiritual. Gandhi, through his interpretation of Satyagraha, developed a life of selflessness and simplicity, standing for these ideas through his body and actions and further contrasting himself in relation to his opposition.

Image courtesy of Satyagraha Foundation for Nonviolence Studies

FURTHER READING

Chakraborty, Chandrima. “Speaking through Bodies, Exhibiting the Limits: British Colonialism and Gandhian Nationalism.” Forum for world literature studies 6, no. 4 (2014): 675–691.

Gandhi, and Dennis Dalton. 1996. Mahatma Gandhi : Selected Political Writings. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub.

Jahanbegloo, Ramin. “Gandhi and the Global Satyagraha.” Social Change (New Delhi) 51, no. 1 (2021): 38–50.

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Sarojini Naidu

Published May 16, 2022 by Rush Lee

Sarojini NAIDU (1879-1949) was an Indian freedom fighter, poet, and good friend of Mahatma Gandhi. Her primary focus was advocating for India’s emancipation from British colonial rule. She proscribed to Gandhi’s method of Satyagraha and participated in the Quit India Movement. Like Gandhi, she opposed Partition and advocated for the secularism of Indian as well as Hindu-Muslim unity. She succeeded Gandhi as the President of the Indian National Congress and later became the first Governor if the United Provinces.

Naidu’s advocated heavily for women’s emancipation, providing a feminist perspective from Partition-era India. After working for women’s suffrage in London, she articulated that women’s freedom and agency were essential to the independence movement. She tailored her arguments to satisfy both men and women, using poetic rhetoric to convince people of women’s capability and importance.

Further reading

Shekhani, Ummekulsoom. “Sarojini Naidu-The Forgotten Orator of India.” Rhetoric Review 36, no. 2 (2017): 139–150.

Naidu, Sarojini. Speeches and Writings of Sarojini Naidu. Third edition. G.A. Natesan, Madras, 1919.

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Jahanara Imam

Jahanara Imam

Published May 16, 2022 by Rush Lee

Jahanara IMAM (1929-1994) was a Bangladeshi nationalist writer and political activist with a focus on shedding light on the atrocities committed during the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War.

Jahanara’s eldest son Rumi joined the resistance movement, yet she was anxious about his fate. She kept a diary detailing the buildup of the conflict between West and East Pakistan, the martial law instituted on March 25th, the burning of buildings, and the shootings of civilians. She includes a conversation with her and Rumi discussing the potential outcome of deliberations between Yahya Khan, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, and Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, as well as the nationalist sentiments from the resistance movement. Her diary becomes an essential publication in understanding the toils of the independence movement so much so that she earns the title of “Shaheed Janani,” which means “Mother of Martyrs.”

FURTHER READING

Imam, Jahanara. Of Blood and Fire: The Untold Story of Bangladesh’s War of Independence. South Asia Books, 1998.

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Bangladesh Liberation War

Bangladesh Liberation War

Published May 16, 2022 by Rush Lee

The Bangladesh Liberation War (1971-1971) occurred after Partition, where West and East Pakistan began to experience conflict and discontent due to its geographic separation and its economic, language, ethnic, and religious differences. Bengali nationalists advocated for self-determination and independence from West Pakistan. In 1970, Pakistan’s General Election granted Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, a Bengali from East Pakistan, a majority. Deliberations over forming a government failed, prompting West Pakistan to instigate a crackdown in East Pakistan with increased military presence and martial law. On March 25, 1971, Sheikh Mujib declared Bangladesh independent.

Bengali nationalists urged resistance and used guerrilla tactics to combat the East Pakistani military, which began to weaponize violence and engage in massacres. East Pakistan committed genocide, targeting Bengali people. Millions of Bengali refugees fled to India, prompting India’s involvement as an ally. Pakistan surrendered on December 16, 1971, in Dhaka, the site of horrific massacres, which officially cemented Bangladesh as an independent and sovereign nation.

FURTHER READING

Raghavan, Srinath. 1971. Harvard University Press, 2013.

Bass, Gary Jonathan. The Blood Telegram : Nixon, Kissinger, and a Forgotten Genocide. First edition. New York: Alfred A Knopf, 2013.

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