Category: 20th century

The New Culture Movement

Published May 17, 2022 by Catherine Freemon

The New Culture Movement (1917-1921) was a movement in China that criticized conservative, traditional Chinese ideas and sought to advance a more progressive “new culture.” This new culture found its footing in Western ideals like science and democracy and was spearheaded by scholars such as Chen Duxiu, Lu Xun, Hu Shih, Li Dazhao, Chen Hengzhe, Liu Bannong, Cai Yuanpei, He Dong, Zhou Zouren, Qian Xuantong, and Bing Xin. This group, of whom many were classically educated, rebelled against Confucianism and classical values. Its hub was Peking University, where many of the leaders gathered under the leadership of Cai Yuanpei during his time as chancellor.

An important facet was the New Youth magazine, a publication where many of these thinkers were able to speak out through essays, short stories, and other forms of writing. The New Culture Movement espoused liberal ideas like the end of the patriarchal family structure, individualism, the re-examination of the Confucian texts and other ancient writings using modern critical methods (called the Doubting Antiquity School), rights for women, and democratic values.

Further Reading

Goldman, Merle and Leo Ou-fan Lee, eds. An Intellectual History of Modern China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.

Mitter, Rana. A Bitter Revolution: China’s Struggle with the Modern World. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.

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Lu Xun

Published May 17, 2022 by Catherine Freemon

LU Xun (1881-1936) was a writer, essayist, and poet, and an influential figure in China in the early 1900s. In 1918, Lu published his first short story, “The Diary of a Madman,” a dark and satirical political commentary that forcefully attacks the government and culture of China in the early 1900s. Society was based on Confucianism, which values traditionalism and denigrates Western ideas. Through the story, Lu Xun calls for a more humanistic and individualistic society that eradicates the old values of China. This was one of the first works of vernacular fiction in Chinese history, and it was written for the magazine New Youth, which would become the flagship journal for the May Fourth movement. His most famous work is “The True Story of Ah-Q.” Similar to The Diary of a Madman, this story also criticizes Confucian ideals and urges readers to resist them, albeit not as violently as the former. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in literature because of this work, and it solidified his writing as a pillar of Chinese literature.

FURTHER READING

Xun, Lu. The Real Story of Ah-Q and Other Tales of China: The Complete Fiction of Lu Xun. Afterword by Julia Lovell. Translated by Yiyun Li. London: Penguin Books, 2009.

Leo Ou-fan Lee, Voices from the Iron House: A Study of Lu Xun. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987.

Spence, Jonathan. The Gate of Heavenly Peace: The Chinese and Their Revolution 1895-1980. New York: Viking, 1981.

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Kang Youwei

Published May 17, 2022 by jeforte

KANG Youwei (1858-1927) was a prominent Chinese public intellectual and reformer, best known for his socialist interpretation of Confucianism and radical reforms. Kang grew up during the end of the Qing dynasty and was an influential voice in guiding China’s development and modernization at the start of the 20^th century. An advocate of constitutional monarchy, Kang saw Meiji Japan as a model for China’s future development. This view earned him the ire of his contemporaries, leading Kang to be branded as a heretic.

Kang and his student Liang Qichao participated in the Hundred Days’ Reform effort in 1898, the failure of which forced Kang and Liang to flee to Japan to escape execution. Kang’s subsequent travel through Europe and Canada cemented his belief in the danger of revolution, opting instead for reform. Kang would later return to China, and in 1917 attempted to overthrow Sun Yat-sen’s newly established Republic and restore a Qing monarch to the throne. This did not go very well, however, as public sentiment had by this time shifted heavily against monarchism, and after becoming suspicious of his compatriot General Zhang Xun’s motives, Kang abandoned the effort. While public opinion weighed against Kang by the end of his life, his ideas would continue to influence Chinese thinkers for decades to come. His most influential work, Datong Shu (大同書) or “Book of Great Unity,” argued for the dissolution of traditional Chinese family structures (to be replaced with governmental institutions), the liberation of women, the implementation of socialist-style welfare, and the advancement of Chinese technology to improve quality of life.

FURTHER READING

De Bary, Theodore and Richard Lufrano, eds. Sources of Chinese Tradition, vol. 2. 2nd ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000.

Brusadelli, Federico. Confucian Concord: Reform, Utopia, and Teleology in Kang Youwei’s Datong Shu. Leiden: Brill, 2020.

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Hu Shih

Published May 17, 2022 by jeforte

HU Shih (1891-1962) was a Chinese literary critic, politician, and philosopher. He is best known for his advocacy of the use of Chinese vernacular, which greatly democratized literature in China. Born in Shanghai, Hu distinguished himself by becoming a national scholar, and went on the study at Cornell and Columbia University in the United States. At Columbia Hu studied philosophy with the pragmatist John Dewey, whose views would greatly influence Hu. Upon returning to lecture at Peking University, Hu started writing for the journal New Youth, and quickly became a prominent public intellectual. In various publications, Hu advocated for a “new literature” written in vernacular Chinese (baihua) and thus freed from the tyranny and constraints of the “dead” classical language (wenyuan).

This would prove hugely transformative for China’s nascent literary movements, as the switch to vernacular enabled many more people to read, write, and otherwise critically participate in literature. At the same time, Hu advocated for a broad application of Dewey’s pragmatic methodology, including the use of the scientific method in the study of traditional Chinese literature. Following the May Fourth incident in 1919, however, these pragmatist convictions would lead Hu to split with the communists, as he saw abstract doctrines like Marxism or Anarchism as being unable to offer solutions to the real issues China faced. Hu’s relations with the nationalists were similarly tenuous, but he would nevertheless go on to serve as ambassador to Washington and later Chancellor to Peking National University. When the communists seized power in 1949, Hu fled to New York City, before settling in Taiwan, where he would live the rest of his life.

FURTHER READING

Shih, Hu, and Chih-P’ing Chou. English Writings of Hu Shih Chinese Philosophy and Intellectual History, 3 vols. Berlin, Germany: Springer, 2013.

Grieder, Jerome. Hu Shih and the Chinese Renaissance: Liberalism in the Chinese Revolution, 1917-1937. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1970.

Chou, Min-Chih. Hu Shih and Intellectual Choice in Modern China. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1984.

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Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

Published May 17, 2022 by Rush Lee

SHEIKH Mujibur Rahman (1920-1975), also known as Mujib, is considered to be the Father of Bangladesh. He founded the Awami League, a Pakistani political party advocating for democracy and socialism that stood in opposition to the dominant Muslim League. He worked to end discrimination of Bengalis in Pakistan, creating his Six-Point Plan detailing political autonomy for East Pakistan.

In 1970, the Awami League won the first democratic election in Pakistan. After an inability to form government and failed negotiations, the Pakistani army arrested Mujib and engaged in a genocide against the Bengali people in East Pakistan, beginning the Bangladesh Liberation War. After Bangladesh’s independence, Mujib was released and became Prime Minister. He indicated that the new constitution be grounded in nationalism, democracy, secularism, and socialism. He was assassinated by a coup in 1975 due to his declaration of a one party socialist state and discontent due to Bangladesh suffering from poverty and corruption.

FURTHER READING

McDermott, Rachel Fell, Leonard A. Gordon, Ainslie T. Embree, Frances W. Pritchett, and Dennis Dalton, eds. “BANGLADESH: Independence and Controversies Over the Fruits of Freedom.” In Sources of Indian Traditions: Modern India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, 3rd ed., 839–841. Columbia University Press, 2014.

Dowlah, Caf. The Bangladesh Liberation War, the Sheikh Mujib Regime, and Contemporary Controversies, Lexington Books, 2016.

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Indian Independence Movement

Published May 17, 2022 by Neil Bhatia

India’s Independence Movement (1857-1947) spanned nearly a century in length, beginning with the Rebellion of 1857, continuing with the rise of Indian nationalism and further resistance, and ending with the partition of India as well as its declared swaraj (independence) in 1947.

The “first war of independence” began in 1857, as Indians feared for their eroding traditions at the expense of British modernization and expansionist ambitions. The sepoys (Indian soldiers in the British army) fought back as economic due to British , igniting other mutinies and rebellions in India. While this rebellion was contained within a year, Indian nationalism continued to grow over the ensuing decades and finally gained tangible traction with the efforts of Mahatma Gandhi and Sarojini Naidu. In the face of oppression they used ideas of Satyagraha and Ahimsa to encourage boycotts and strikes to further pressure British authority. These non-violent protests made things more difficult for the British, who were becoming increasingly preoccupied with World War Two. After the British, against the wishes of Gandhi, negotiated for the Partition of India with Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the Muslim League, they eventually granted independence to India in 1947.

FURTHER READING

Gandhi, and Dennis Dalton. 1996. Mahatma Gandhi : Selected Political Writings. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub.

Jahanbegloo, Ramin. “Gandhi and the Global Satyagraha.” Social Change (New Delhi) 51, no. 1 (2021): 38–50.

Singh, Frances B. “A Passage to India, the National Movement, and Independence.” Twentieth century literature 31, no. 2/3 (1985): 265–278.

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Muhammad Ali Jinnah

Muhammad Ali Jinnah

Published May 17, 2022 by Rush Lee

Muhammad Ali JINNAH (1876-1948) is the founder of Pakistan. Jinnah joined the Indian National Congress in an effort to seek independence from British colonial rule. He originally believed in Hindu-Muslim unity while still advocating for political rights for Muslims. He left the Congress after the introduction of Satyagraha, which he vehemently opposed as he preferred a constitutional approach.

As he experienced a resurgence of his Muslim identity, he worked to establish a sovereign state for Indian Muslims who were worried about being in a minority in Hindu-dominant India. Jinnah helped the All-India Muslim League to declare the independent states of Pakistan, West and East Pakistan, by passing the Lahore Resolution. The Two Nation Theory appeared to be a solution as Jinnah believed that the religious differences between Muslims and Hindus were too great to uphold a secular state. Instead of ethnicity, Pakistan’s foundation for state-building and nationalism became Islam.

FURTHER READING

Brass, Paul R. Routledge Handbook of South Asian Politics India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Nepal. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, 2009, 27-40.

Jinnah, Mahomed Ali. Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah: Speeches, Statements, Writings, Letters, Etc. 1st ed. Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications, 1976.

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Ahimsa

Published May 17, 2022 by Neil Bhatia

Ahimsa, meaning “nonviolence”, was used in conjunction with Satyagraha by Mahatma Gandhi to form the basis for his resistance to colonial powers during the Indian Independence Movement. This concept comes from various religions, as Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism all incorporate ahimsa to varying degrees. In Jainism, Ahimsa is one of its three main pillars as a fundamental tenet of harmlessness towards all life. Within Buddhism, ahimsa is tied to a principle of non-harming.

For Hinduism, ahimsa functions as one of its primary values with a respect for all life. Gandhi was exposed to ahimsa from an early age, as he was raised in Gujarat where Jainism ran strong. He ultimately interpreted it in a secular manner of non-killing, eschewing specific religious interpretations in favor of a more general meaning and practical use with regards to civic protest. Gandhi did acknowledge ahimsa’s application across various religions on higher levels or realms, but he chose to unify the idea between the faiths as he practiced it alongside Satyagraha.

FURTHER READING

Gandhi, and Dennis Dalton. 1996. Mahatma Gandhi : Selected Political Writings. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub.

Jahanbegloo, Ramin. “Gandhi and the Global Satyagraha.” Social Change (New Delhi) 51, no. 1 (2021): 38–50.

Tähtinen Unto. 1964. Non-Violence As an Ethical Principle : With Special Reference to the Views of Mahatma Gandhi. Turun Yliopiston Julkaisuja : Sarja B, Humaniora, Osa 92. Turku: Turun Yliopisto.

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The Language Movement of Bangladesh

The Language Movement of Bangladesh

Published May 16, 2022 by Rush Lee

The Language Movement of Bangladesh (1948-1971) encapsulated the essence of conflict between West and East Pakistan. Urdu is the state language of Pakistan, though many cannot speak or read it, especially in East Pakistan. Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the Governor-General of Pakistan, refused to acknowledge requests to allow Bengali to become a state recognized language. He believed that one language was key to a strong sense of nationalism and a strong state. Urdu represented a strong Muslim state.

Students from the University of Dhaka began protesting on February 21, 1952 after further government refusal of incorporating the Bengali language. While attempting to arrest students, police shot and killed several students at the protest, causing widespread civil unrest. Later a monument was built near the university to commemorate the martyrs of the Language Movement. The movement served as a catalyst for the development and protection of Bengali language and culture, which soon developed into a strong Bengali nationalist movement.

FURTHER READING

Brass, Paul R. Routledge Handbook of South Asian Politics India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Nepal. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, 2009, 233-243.

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Satyagraha

Published May 16, 2022 by Neil Bhatia

Satyagraha, meaning “asserting for truth” or “holding onto truth”, is what Mahatma Gandhi used in conjunction with ahimsa as tools to engage in non-violent dissent. Gandhi coined this term from the roots of the words “Sat”, meaning truth, and “Agraha”, meaning firmness, and he used Satyagraha to organize political action in the face of untruth and injustice.

This concept’s reach extended beyond Gandhi’s work during the Indian Independence Movement due to its essence of non-violence being seen as morally acceptable action. Movements of other activists such as Martin Luther King Jr, Ghaffar Khan, and Nelson Mandela that incorporated Satyagraha show its potential to produce conflict resolution and civic protest as a contrasting force to the violent forces of tyranny across the world. Beyond political action, Satyagraha also cultivates a way of life rooted in the spiritual. Gandhi, through his interpretation of Satyagraha, developed a life of selflessness and simplicity, standing for these ideas through his body and actions and further contrasting himself in relation to his opposition.

Image courtesy of Satyagraha Foundation for Nonviolence Studies

FURTHER READING

Chakraborty, Chandrima. “Speaking through Bodies, Exhibiting the Limits: British Colonialism and Gandhian Nationalism.” Forum for world literature studies 6, no. 4 (2014): 675–691.

Gandhi, and Dennis Dalton. 1996. Mahatma Gandhi : Selected Political Writings. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub.

Jahanbegloo, Ramin. “Gandhi and the Global Satyagraha.” Social Change (New Delhi) 51, no. 1 (2021): 38–50.

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